Learning Distinctions

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

• Classical (Pavlov). Learning that one stimulus PREDICTS another. Dog salivates to bell because bell = food. Reflexive, involuntary. No consequences - just pairings.
• Operant (Skinner). Learning that your BEHAVIOR produces consequences. Dog sits because sitting = treat. Voluntary. Behavior changes based on what follows it.

Key distinction: classical = stimulus-stimulus (S-S) learning. Operant = behavior-consequence (B-C) learning.

Positive vs. Negative (in Reinforcement/Punishment)

• Positive. ADDING something to the environment.
• Negative. REMOVING something from the environment.

Key distinction: these words don’t mean “good” or “bad.” They mean add vs. remove. A seatbelt buzzer REMOVED when you buckle = negative reinforcement.

Reinforcement vs. Punishment

• Reinforcement. INCREASES a behavior.
• Punishment. DECREASES a behavior.

Key distinction: outcome on behavior frequency, not on feelings. Cross with positive/negative for the full 2×2:

Examples:

• Candy for good grades = positive reinforcement.
• Buzzer stops when seatbelt buckled = negative reinforcement.
• Speeding ticket = positive punishment.
• Phone taken away = negative punishment.

Generalization vs. Discrimination (Classical)

• Generalization. Similar stimuli trigger the CR. Dog salivates to bell AND to doorbell (similar sound).
• Discrimination. Only the exact CS triggers the CR. Dog learns to salivate only to the feeding bell, not the doorbell.

Key distinction: generalization = broader response. Discrimination = narrower response. Both are adaptive.

Extinction vs. Spontaneous Recovery vs. Extinction Burst

• Extinction. CS stops triggering CR because pairings stop. Dog stops salivating to bell when bell no longer predicts food.
• Spontaneous recovery. After extinction + rest period, CS briefly triggers a weak CR again. Not permanent.
• Extinction burst. Temporary SPIKE in the target behavior when reinforcement first stops. Tantrums get worse before they fade.

Key distinction: extinction = decline over repeated trials. Spontaneous recovery = brief return after rest. Extinction burst = short-term spike at the start of extinction.

Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers

• Primary. Innately satisfying. Food, water, warmth, sex. Don’t need to be learned.
• Secondary. Acquire value by pairing with primary reinforcers. Money, praise, tokens, grades.

Key distinction: does the organism innately want it? If yes, primary. If it’s valuable only because of association, secondary.

Fixed vs. Variable, Ratio vs. Interval

• Ratio (count). Reinforcement after a number of RESPONSES.
• Interval (time). Reinforcement after a period of TIME.
• Fixed. Same number/time every reward.
• Variable. Unpredictable number/time.

Crossed:

Key distinction: VR (variable ratio) produces the highest, most consistent response rate and greatest resistance to extinction. That’s why gambling is so addictive.

Shaping vs. Chaining

• Shaping. Reinforcing SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS to a target behavior. Teach a pigeon to peck by first rewarding facing the button, then approaching it, then touching it, finally pecking it.
• Chaining. Linking already-learned individual responses into a SEQUENCE. Dance routines, driving a stick shift.

Key distinction: shaping = building a new behavior in stages. Chaining = stitching mastered pieces into a sequence.

Escape vs. Avoidance Learning

• Escape. Aversive stimulus already HAPPENING; you learn a response that ENDS it. Rat learns to jump off the electric grid once shocked.
• Avoidance. Signal warns BEFORE the aversive stimulus; you learn a response that PREVENTS it. Rat hears buzzer, jumps over wall, avoids shock entirely.

Key distinction: escape = reactive (stimulus is there). Avoidance = proactive (stimulus is predicted). Avoidance is notoriously hard to extinguish because the aversive stimulus never actually arrives.

Habituation vs. Sensitization (Non-Associative Learning)

• Habituation. DECREASED response to a repeated harmless stimulus. You stop noticing the AC hum.
• Sensitization. INCREASED response to a repeated stimulus, usually after an intense/threatening one. Startle at any sound after a trauma.

Key distinction: habituation = tuning out. Sensitization = amping up. Both involve repetition; they differ in the direction of the response change.

Habituation vs. Sensory Adaptation

• Habituation. Brain-level. Receptor still fires; brain filters it out.
• Sensory adaptation. Receptor-level. Receptor literally stops firing.

Key distinction: covered above too - same distinction worth repeating. Receptor fatigue = adaptation. Brain dismissal = habituation.

Insight vs. Trial-and-Error vs. Algorithm vs. Heuristic

• Insight. “Aha!” moment. Sudden solution after a period of thought or rest.
• Trial-and-error. Random attempts; no memory of what’s been tried.
• Algorithm. Step-by-step procedure guaranteed to find the solution (exhaustive).
• Heuristic. Mental shortcut that usually but not always works.

Key distinction: algorithm = systematic and guaranteed. Heuristic = fast but fallible. Insight = sudden realization. Trial-and-error = brute force without learning.

Positive Reinforcement vs. Bribery

Both involve adding something to increase behavior, but:

• Positive reinforcement. Given AFTER the desired behavior to make it more likely.
• Bribery. Given BEFORE or DURING the behavior, often to stop unwanted behavior.

Key distinction: timing. Reinforcement follows. Bribery precedes. This is a subtle but testable point.

Instinctive Drift vs. Biological Preparedness

• Instinctive drift. Trained operant behaviors revert to INSTINCTIVE species-specific behaviors. Raccoon drops token → starts washing it (food-washing instinct).
• Biological preparedness. Some stimulus-response pairs are EASIER to learn due to evolutionary relevance. Taste-illness pair learns in one trial; taste-shock doesn’t.

Key distinction: instinctive drift = trained behavior collapsing into instinct. Preparedness = some pairings are easier to train in the first place. Both show biology shapes what and how fast animals learn.